The Floering of Artsmusic and Literature by Africanamericans in the 1920s Was Known as?

African-American cultural movement in New York City in the 1920s

This commodity is almost the African-American cultural move in New York Metropolis in the 1920s. For the album past Benny Carter, encounter Harlem Renaissance (anthology). For the eponymous basketball game team, come across New York Renaissance.

Harlem Renaissance

Function of the Roaring Twenties
Three African-American women in Harlem during the Harlem Renaissance in 1925
Date	1918 – mid 1930s
Location	Harlem, New York City, Us and influences from Paris, France
Also known as	New Negro Move
Participants	Various artists and social critics
Consequence	Mainstream recognition of cultural developments and idea of New Negro

The Harlem Renaissance was an intellectual and cultural revival of African American music, dance, fine art, fashion, literature, theater, politics and scholarship centered in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City, spanning the 1920s and 1930s. At the time, it was known as the "New Negro Motion", named later on The New Negro, a 1925 anthology edited by Alain Locke. The movement too included the new African American cultural expressions across the urban areas in the Northeast and Midwest United States affected by a renewed militancy in the general struggle for ceremonious rights, combined with the Great Migration of African American workers fleeing the racist conditions of the Jim Crow Deep South,^[one] as Harlem was the final destination of the largest number of those who migrated north.

Though it was centered in the Harlem neighborhood, many francophone black writers from African and Caribbean area colonies who lived in Paris were also influenced by the movement,^{[2] [3] [4] [5]} which spanned from nigh 1918 until the mid-1930s.^[6] Many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro literature", as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, took place between 1924—when Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life hosted a party for black writers where many white publishers were in attendance—and 1929, the twelvemonth of the stock-market crash and the beginning of the Great Depression. The Harlem Renaissance is considered to take been a rebirth of the African-American arts.^[vii] Many people^{[ who? ]} would debate that the Harlem Renaissance never ended and has connected to be an important cultural force in the Usa through the decades: from the age of stride pianoforte jazz and blues to the ages of bebop, rock and curl, soul, disco and hip-hop.

Background

Until the end of the Civil War, the majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the South. During the Reconstruction Era, the emancipated African Americans, freedmen, began to strive for civic participation, political equality and economic and cultural self-determination. Soon after the end of the Ceremonious State of war the Ku Klux Klan Human action of 1871 gave ascension to speeches by African-American Congressmen addressing this Bill.^[8] By 1875, sixteen African Americans had been elected and served in Congress and gave numerous speeches with their newfound civil empowerment.^[9]

The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 was followed by the passage of the Civil Rights Deed of 1875, part of Reconstruction legislation by Republicans. During the mid-to-tardily 1870s, racist whites organized in the Democratic Party launched a murderous campaign of racist terrorism to regain political power throughout the South. From 1890 to 1908, they proceeded to pass legislation that disenfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites, trapping them without representation. They established white supremacist regimes of Jim Crow segregation in the South and one-political party cake voting behind southern Democrats.

Autonomous Party politicians (many having been onetime slaveowners and political and military leaders of the Confederacy) conspired to deny African Americans their practise of ceremonious and political rights by terrorizing blackness communities with lynch mobs and other forms of vigilante violence^[x] besides as by instituting a convict labor organization that forced many thousands of African Americans dorsum into unpaid labor in mines, on plantations, and on public works projects such as roads and levees. Convict laborers were typically subject to brutal forms of corporal punishment, overwork, and disease from unsanitary weather. Death rates were extraordinarily high.^[11] While a small number of African Americans were able to acquire land soon later on the Civil War, well-nigh were exploited equally sharecroppers.^[12] Whether sharecropping or on their own acreage, most of the black population was closely financially dependent on agronomics. This added another impetus for the Migration: The arrival of the boll weevil. The beetle eventually came to waste eight% of the land'south cotton fiber yield annually and thus disproportionately impacted this function of America's citizenry.^[thirteen] Equally life in the South became increasingly difficult, African Americans began to migrate north in bang-up numbers.

Most of the hereafter leading lights of what was to become known as the "Harlem Renaissance" motility arose from a generation that had memories of the gains and losses of Reconstruction later the Civil War. Sometimes their parents, grandparents – or they themselves – had been slaves. Their ancestors had sometimes benefited by paternal investment in cultural capital, including ameliorate-than-average education.

Many in the Harlem Renaissance were part of the early 20th century Great Migration out of the South into the African-American neighborhoods of the Northeast and Midwest. African Americans sought a amend standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the Southward. Others were people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the Caribbean who came to the United States hoping for a meliorate life. Uniting most of them was their convergence in Harlem.

Development

A silent brusk documentary on the Negro Artist. Richmond Barthé working on Kalombwan (1934)

During the early portion of the 20th century, Harlem was the destination for migrants from around the country, alluring both people from the South seeking work and an educated class who made the expanse a heart of civilization, as well as a growing "Negro" centre class. These people were looking for a fresh start in life and this was a good place to become. The district had originally been developed in the 19th century equally an exclusive suburb for the white middle and upper eye classes; its flush beginnings led to the development of stately houses, grand avenues, and world-class amenities such as the Polo Grounds and the Harlem Opera House. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the one time exclusive district was abased past the white middle grade, who moved farther north.

Harlem became an African-American neighborhood in the early 1900s. In 1910, a big block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African-American realtors and a church building grouping.^{[fourteen] [ citation needed ]} Many more African Americans arrived during the First World War. Due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the state of war endeavor resulted in a massive need for unskilled industrial labor. The Bang-up Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities such equally Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, and New York.

Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, frequently by more contempo ethnic immigrants, continued to touch African-American communities, fifty-fifty in the North.^[xv] Later the end of World State of war I, many African-American soldiers—who fought in segregated units such as the Harlem Hellfighters—came home to a nation whose citizens often did not respect their accomplishments.^[16] Race riots and other ceremonious uprisings occurred throughout the US during the Reddish Summer of 1919, reflecting economic competition over jobs and housing in many cities, as well equally tensions over social territories.

Mainstream recognition of Harlem culture

The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s. In 1917, the premiere of Granny Maumee, The Rider of Dreams, Simon the Cyrenian: Plays for a Negro Theater took place. These plays, written past white playwright Ridgely Torrence, featured African-American actors conveying complex human emotions and yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the blackface and minstrel show traditions. James Weldon Johnson in 1917 called the premieres of these plays "the most important single effect in the entire history of the Negro in the American Theater".^[17]

Another landmark came in 1919, when the communist poet Claude McKay published his militant sonnet "If Nosotros Must Die", which introduced a dramatically political dimension to the themes of African cultural inheritance and modern urban experience featured in his 1917 poems "Invocation" and "Harlem Dancer". Published under the pseudonym Eli Edwards, these were his first appearance in print in the Usa after immigrating from Jamaica.^[18] Although "If Nosotros Must Dice" never alluded to race, African-American readers heard its note of defiance in the face of racism and the nationwide race riots and lynchings then taking place. By the end of the Get-go World War, the fiction of James Weldon Johnson and the poetry of Claude McKay were describing the reality of contemporary African-American life in America.

The Harlem Renaissance grew out of the changes that had taken place in the African-American community since the abolition of slavery, as the expansion of communities in the Due north. These accelerated every bit a consequence of World War I and the slap-up social and cultural changes in early 20th-century United States. Industrialization was alluring people to cities from rural areas and gave ascent to a new mass culture. Contributing factors leading to the Harlem Renaissance were the Neat Migration of African Americans to northern cities, which full-bodied ambitious people in places where they could encourage each other, and the First World War, which had created new industrial piece of work opportunities for tens of thousands of people. Factors leading to the decline of this era include the Not bad Low.

Literature

In 1917 Hubert Harrison, "The Father of Harlem Radicalism", founded the Freedom League and The Voice, the first organization and the first newspaper, respectively, of the "New Negro Motion". Harrison'due south organisation and newspaper were political, but besides emphasized the arts (his newspaper had "Poetry for the People" and book review sections). In 1927, in the Pittsburgh Courier, Harrison challenged the notion of the renaissance. He argued that the "Negro Literary Renaissance" notion overlooked "the stream of literary and artistic products which had flowed uninterruptedly from Negro writers from 1850 to the present," and said the so-called "renaissance" was largely a white invention.^{[ commendation needed ]} Alternatively, a author like the Chicago-based author, Fenton Johnson. who began publishing in the early 1900s, is chosen a "precursor" of the renaissance,^{[xix] [twenty]} "one of the first negro revolutionary poets".^[21]

Yet, with the Harlem Renaissance came a sense of acceptance for African-American writers; every bit Langston Hughes put information technology, with Harlem came the backbone "to express our individual dark-skinned selves without fear or shame."^[22] Alain Locke's anthology The New Negro was considered the cornerstone of this cultural revolution.^[23] The anthology featured several African-American writers and poets, from the well-known, such every bit Zora Neale Hurston and communists Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, to the lesser-known, like the poet Anne Spencer.^[24]

Many poets of the Harlem Renaissance were inspired to tie in threads of African-American culture into their poems; as a result, jazz poesy was heavily adult during this time. "The Weary Blues" was a notable jazz poem written by Langston Hughes.^[25] Through their works of literature, blackness authors were able to give a phonation to the African-American identity, equally well as strive for a community of support and acceptance.

Religion

Christianity played a major role in the Harlem Renaissance. Many of the writers and social critics discussed the part of Christianity in African-American lives. For example, a famous poem past Langston Hughes, "Madam and the Minister", reflects the temperature and mood towards religion in the Harlem Renaissance.^[26] The cover story for The Crunch magazine'south publication in May 1936 explains how important Christianity was regarding the proposed union of the three largest Methodist churches of 1936. This article shows the controversial question of unification for these churches.^[27] The commodity "The Catholic Church and the Negro Priest", also published in The Crisis, Jan 1920, demonstrates the obstacles African-American priests faced in the Cosmic Church. The article confronts what it saw as policies based on race that excluded African Americans from higher positions in the church.^[28]

Discourse

Religion and Evolution Ad

Various forms of religious worship existed during this time of African-American intellectual reawakening. Although there were racist attitudes within the current Abrahamic religious arenas many African Americans continued to push towards the practice of a more than inclusive doctrine. For example, George Joseph MacWilliam presents various experiences, during his pursuit towards priesthood, of rejection on the basis of his color and race yet he shares his frustration in attempts to incite activity on the office of The Crisis magazine community.^[28]

At that place were other forms of spiritualism practiced amidst African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance. Some of these religions and philosophies were inherited from African beginnings. For example, the religion of Islam was present in Africa as early equally the 8th century through the Trans-Saharan trade. Islam came to Harlem likely through the migration of members of the Moorish Scientific discipline Temple of America, which was established in 1913 in New Jersey.^{[ commendation needed ]} Various forms of Judaism were practiced, including Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Judaism, but information technology was Black Hebrew Israelites that founded their religious belief system during the early 20th century in the Harlem Renaissance.^{[ commendation needed ]} Traditional forms of religion acquired from diverse parts of Africa were inherited and practiced during this era. Some mutual examples were Voodoo and Santeria.^{[ citation needed ]}

Criticism

Religious critique during this era was institute in music, literature, art, theater and verse. The Harlem Renaissance encouraged analytic dialogue that included the open critique and the adjustment of current religious ideas.

One of the major contributors to the word of African-American renaissance civilisation was Aaron Douglas who, with his artwork, as well reflected the revisions African Americans were making to the Christian dogma. Douglas uses biblical imagery as inspiration to various pieces of fine art work but with the rebellious twist of an African influence.^[29]

Countee Cullen'southward poem "Heritage" expresses the inner struggle of an African American between his past African heritage and the new Christian culture.^[thirty] A more severe criticism of the Christian faith tin be found in Langston Hughes' poem "Merry Christmas", where he exposes the irony of religion every bit a symbol for good and nevertheless a force for oppression and injustice.^[31]

Music

A new mode of playing the piano called the Harlem Footstep fashion was created during the Harlem Renaissance, and helped blur the lines between the poor African Americans and socially elite African Americans. The traditional jazz band was composed primarily of brass instruments and was considered a symbol of the due south, but the pianoforte was considered an instrument of the wealthy. With this instrumental modification to the existing genre, the wealthy African Americans now had more than access to jazz music. Its popularity soon spread throughout the state and was consequently at an all-time high.

Innovation and liveliness were important characteristics of performers in the ancestry of jazz. Jazz performers and composers at the fourth dimension such as Eubie Blake, Noble Sissle, Jelly Roll Morton, Luckey Roberts, James P. Johnson, Willie "The Panthera leo" Smith, Andy Razaf, Fats Waller, Ethel Waters, Adelaide Hall,^[32] Florence Mills and bandleaders Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong and Fletcher Henderson were extremely talented, skillful, competitive and inspirational. They are still considered every bit having laid great parts of the foundations for future musicians of their genre.^{[33] [34] [35]}

Duke Ellington gained popularity during the Harlem Renaissance. Co-ordinate to Charles Garrett, "The resulting portrait of Ellington reveals him to be non only the gifted composer, bandleader, and musician we have come to know, but also an earthly person with basic desires, weaknesses, and eccentricities."^[7] Ellington did not permit his popularity get to him. He remained calm and focused on his music.

During this period, the musical style of blacks was condign more and more than bonny to whites. White novelists, dramatists and composers started to exploit the musical tendencies and themes of African Americans in their works. Composers (including William Grant Still, William L. Dawson and Florence Price) used poems written by African-American poets in their songs, and would implement the rhythms, harmonies and melodies of African-American music—such as blues, spirituals, and jazz—into their concert pieces. African Americans began to merge with Whites into the classical world of musical composition. The offset African-American male to proceeds wide recognition every bit a concert artist in both his region and internationally was Roland Hayes. He trained with Arthur Calhoun in Chattanooga, and at Fisk University in Nashville. Later, he studied with Arthur Hubbard in Boston and with George Henschel and Amanda Ira Aldridge in London, England. He began singing in public as a educatee, and toured with the Fisk Jubilee Singers in 1911.^[36]

Musical theatre

Poster for Run, Little Chillun

According to James Vernon Hatch and Leo Hamalian, all-Black review Run, Little Chillun is considered one of the about successful musical dramas of the Harlem Renaissance.^[37]

Fashion

During the Harlem Renaissance, the blackness wear scene took a dramatic turn from the prim and proper. Many young women preferred- from brusque skirts and silk stockings to drop-waisted dresses and cloche hats.^[38] Woman wore loose-fitted garments and accessorized with long strand pearl bead necklaces, plume boas, and cigarette holders. The style of the Harlem Renaissance was used to convey elegance and flamboyancy and needed to be created with the vibrant dance fashion of the 1920s in mind.^[39] Popular by the 1930s was a trendy, egret-trimmed beret.

Men wore loose suits that led to the later manner known as the "Zoot", which consisted of wide-legged, high-waisted, peg-top trousers, and a long coat with padded shoulders and wide lapels. Men besides wore broad-brimmed hats, colored socks,^[40] white gloves, and velvet-collared Chesterfield coats. During this period, African Americans expressed respect for their heritage through a fad for leopard-skin coats, indicating the power of the African animal.

The extraordinarily successful black dancer Josephine Baker, though performing in Paris during the acme of the Renaissance, was a major fashion trendsetter for blackness and white women alike. Her gowns from the couturier Jean Patou were much copied, especially her phase costumes, which Vogue magazine called "startling". Josephine Baker is also credited for highlighting the "art deco" fashion era after she performed the "Danse Sauvage". During this Paris performance she adorned a skirt made of string and artificial bananas. Ethel Moses was another pop black performer, Moses starred in silent films in the 1920s and 30s and was recognizable by her signature bob hairstyle.

Characteristics and themes

Trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie is emblematic of the mixture of high form society, popular art, and virtuosity of jazz.

Characterizing the Harlem Renaissance was an overt racial pride that came to be represented in the thought of the New Negro, who through intellect and product of literature, art, and music could challenge the pervading racism and stereotypes to promote progressive or socialist politics, and racial and social integration. The creation of fine art and literature would serve to "uplift" the race.

There would be no uniting form singularly characterizing the art that emerged from the Harlem Renaissance. Rather, it encompassed a wide variety of cultural elements and styles, including a Pan-African perspective, "high-civilization" and "low-culture" or "low-life", from the traditional form of music to the dejection and jazz, traditional and new experimental forms in literature such as modernism and the new class of jazz verse. This duality meant that numerous African-American artists came into conflict with conservatives in the blackness intelligentsia, who took issue with certain depictions of black life.

Some common themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the feel of slavery and emerging African-American folk traditions on black identity, the effects of institutional racism, the dilemmas inherent in performing and writing for elite white audiences, and the question of how to convey the feel of modernistic black life in the urban Northward.

The Harlem Renaissance was 1 of primarily African-American involvement. It rested on a support system of black patrons, black-owned businesses and publications. Nevertheless, it also depended on the patronage of white Americans, such as Carl Van Vechten and Charlotte Osgood Mason, who provided various forms of assistance, opening doors which otherwise might have remained closed to the publication of piece of work outside the black American community. This back up ofttimes took the form of patronage or publication. Carl Van Vechten was one of the nearly noteworthy white Americans involved with the Harlem Renaissance. He allowed for assistance to the blackness American customs because he wanted racial sameness.

In that location were other whites interested in then-called "primitive" cultures, every bit many whites viewed black American culture at that fourth dimension, and wanted to meet such "primitivism" in the piece of work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance. As with virtually fads, some people may have been exploited in the rush for publicity.

Interest in African-American lives as well generated experimental but lasting collaborative work, such as the all-black productions of George Gershwin's opera Porgy and Bess, and Virgil Thomson and Gertrude Stein'south Iv Saints in Iii Acts. In both productions the choral conductor Eva Jessye was part of the creative team. Her choir was featured in Iv Saints.^[41] The music earth also found white band leaders defying racist attitudes to include the all-time and the brightest African-American stars of music and song in their productions.

The African Americans used art to prove their humanity and demand for equality. The Harlem Renaissance led to more opportunities for blacks to be published past mainstream houses. Many authors began to publish novels, magazines and newspapers during this time. The new fiction attracted a slap-up amount of attention from the nation at large. Amidst authors who became nationally known were Jean Toomer, Jessie Fauset, Claude McKay, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon Johnson, Alain Locke, Omar Al Amiri, Eric D. Walrond and Langston Hughes.

Richard Bruce Nugent (1906–1987) who wrote "Smoke, Lilies, and Jade" is an important contribution, peculiarly in relation to experimental form and LGBT themes in the period.^[42]

The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the mail service-World War Two protest motility of the Civil Rights movement. Moreover, many black artists who rose to creative maturity afterward were inspired past this literary movement.

The Renaissance was more than a literary or artistic movement, every bit information technology possessed a certain sociological development—particularly through a new racial consciousness—through ethnic pride, equally seen in the Dorsum to Africa movement led by Jamaican Marcus Garvey. At the same time, a dissimilar expression of ethnic pride, promoted by W. E. B. Du Bois, introduced the notion of the "talented tenth". Du Bois' wrote of the Talented 10th:

The Negro race, like all races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men. The problem of education, and then, among Negroes must commencement of all deal with the Talented Tenth; it is the trouble of developing the best of this race that they may guide the mass away from the contamination and death of the worst.^[43]

These "talented tenth" were considered the finest examples of the worth of black Americans as a response to the rampant racism of the menses. No detail leadership was assigned to the talented tenth, but they were to exist emulated. In both literature and pop discussion, circuitous ideas such equally Du Bois's concept of "twoness" (dualism) were introduced (see The Souls of Black Folk; 1903).^[44] Du Bois explored a divided awareness of one'due south identity that was a unique critique of the social ramifications of racial consciousness. This exploration was later revived during the Black Pride movement of the early 1970s.

Influence

A new Blackness identity

The Harlem Renaissance was successful in that it brought the Black experience conspicuously within the corpus of American cultural history. Not only through an explosion of culture, just on a sociological level, the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance redefined how America, and the world, viewed African Americans. The migration of southern Blacks to the north inverse the epitome of the African American from rural, undereducated peasants to one of urban, cosmopolitan sophistication. This new identity led to a greater social consciousness, and African Americans became players on the world stage, expanding intellectual and social contacts internationally.

The progress—both symbolic and real—during this period became a signal of reference from which the African-American community gained a spirit of self-determination that provided a growing sense of both Black urbanity and Blackness militancy, also equally a foundation for the community to build upon for the Civil Rights struggles in the 1950s and 1960s.

The urban setting of rapidly developing Harlem provided a venue for African Americans of all backgrounds to appreciate the multifariousness of Black life and culture. Through this expression, the Harlem Renaissance encouraged the new appreciation of folk roots and civilisation. For case, folk materials and spirituals provided a rich source for the creative and intellectual imagination, which freed Blacks from the establishment of past condition. Through sharing in these cultural experiences, a consciousness sprung forth in the form of a united racial identity.

Still, at that place was some pressure inside certain groups of the Harlem Renaissance to prefer sentiments of conservative white America in order to be taken seriously by the mainstream. The effect being that queer civilization, while far-more accepted in Harlem than almost places in the land at the time, was almost fully lived out in the smoky dark lights of confined, nightclubs, and cabarets in the metropolis.^[45] It was within these venues that the blues music scene boomed, and since it had not nonetheless gained recognition inside popular culture, queer artists used it as a way to express themselves honestly.^[45]

Even though there were factions inside the Renaissance that were accepting of queer culture/lifestyles, one could nonetheless exist arrested for engaging in homosexual acts. Many people, including author Alice Dunbar Nelson and "The Mother of Blues" Gertrude "Ma" Rainey,^[46] had husbands merely were romantically linked to other women every bit well.^[47]

Ma Rainey was known to dress in traditionally male article of clothing and her dejection lyrics ofttimes reflected her sexual proclivities for women, which was extremely radical at the time. Ma Rainey was also the first person to introduce blues music into vaudeville.^[48] Rainey's protégé, Bessie Smith was another artist who used the blues as a way to express herself with such lines every bit "When y'all see two women walking paw in hand, just look em' over and try to understand: They'll get to those parties – have the lights down low – only those parties where women tin can get."^[45]

Another prominent blues vocalizer was Gladys Bentley, who was known to cantankerous-wearing apparel. Bentley was the order owner of Clam House on 133rd Street in Harlem, which was a hub for queer patrons. The Hamilton Guild in Harlem hosted an annual elevate ball that attracted thousands to watch as a couple hundred young men came to dance the dark away in drag. Though there were prophylactic havens within Harlem, there were prominent voices such as that of Abyssinian Baptist Church'south minister Adam Clayton who actively campaigned against homosexuality.^[47]

The Harlem Renaissance gave birth to the idea of The New Negro. The New Negro movement was an effort to define what it meant to be African-American by African Americans rather than let the degrading stereotypes and caricatures found in black face minstrelsy practices to practice so. There was too The Neo-New Negro movement, which non merely challenged racial definitions and stereotypes, merely also sought to challenge gender roles, normative sexuality, and sexism in America in general. In this respect, the Harlem Renaissance was far ahead of the residue of America in terms of embracing feminism and queer culture.^[49]

These ideals received some push button back every bit liberty of sexuality, particularly pertaining to women (which during the fourth dimension in Harlem was known equally women-loving women),^[46] was seen as confirming the stereotype that blackness women were loose and lacked sexual discernment. The black suburbia saw this equally hampering the cause of black people in America and giving fuel to the fire of racist sentiments around the country. Nevertheless for all of the efforts by both sectors of white and bourgeois black America, queer culture and artists divers major portions of not just the Harlem Renaissance, simply besides define so much of our civilization today. Author of "The Blackness Man'due south Brunt", Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote that the Harlem Renaissance "was surely as gay every bit it was black".^[49]

Criticism of the motility

Many critics point out that the Harlem Renaissance could not escape its history and civilization in its endeavour to create a new one, or sufficiently split up from the foundational elements of White, European culture. Frequently Harlem intellectuals, while proclaiming a new racial consciousness, resorted to mimicry of their white counterparts past adopting their clothing, sophisticated manners and etiquette. This "mimicry" may likewise be called assimilation, as that is typically what minority members of any social construct must practise in order to fit social norms created by that construct's majority.^[50] This could exist seen every bit a reason that the artistic and cultural products of the Harlem Renaissance did not overcome the presence of White-American values, and did not reject these values.^{[ commendation needed ]} In this regard, the creation of the "New Negro" as the Harlem intellectuals sought, was considered a success.^{[ past whom? ]}

The Harlem Renaissance appealed to a mixed audience. The literature appealed to the African-American eye class and to whites. Magazines such as The Crisis, a monthly periodical of the NAACP, and Opportunity, an official publication of the National Urban League, employed Harlem Renaissance writers on their editorial staffs; published verse and short stories by black writers; and promoted African-American literature through articles, reviews, and annual literary prizes. Equally important every bit these literary outlets were, however, the Renaissance relied heavily on white publishing houses and white-owned magazines.^[51]

A major accomplishment of the Renaissance was to open the door to mainstream white periodicals and publishing houses, although the human relationship between the Renaissance writers and white publishers and audiences created some controversy. W. E. B. Du Bois did not oppose the relationship between black writers and white publishers, but he was critical of works such equally Claude McKay'south bestselling novel Habitation to Harlem (1928) for highly-seasoned to the "prurient demand[s]" of white readers and publishers for portrayals of black "licentiousness".^[51]

Langston Hughes spoke for most of the writers and artists when he wrote in his essay "The Negro Creative person and the Racial Mount" (1926) that black artists intended to express themselves freely, no matter what the black public or white public thought.^[52] Hughes in his writings as well returned to the theme of racial passing, but during the Harlem Renaissance, he began to explore the topic of homosexuality and homophobia. He began to use confusing language in his writings. He explored this topic because it was a theme that during this time menstruation was not discussed.^[53]

African-American musicians and writers were among mixed audiences too, having experienced positive and negative outcomes throughout the New Negro Motion. For musicians, Harlem, New York'south cabarets and nightclubs shined a light on black performers and allowed for black residents to savour music and dancing. However, some of the nigh popular clubs (that showcased black musicians) were exclusively for white audiences; ane of the most famous white-merely nightclubs in Harlem was the Cotton Club, where popular black musicians like Knuckles Ellington frequently performed.^[54] Ultimately, the black musicians who appeared at these white-only clubs became far more than successful and became a function of the mainstream music scene.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Similarly, black writers were given the opportunity to shine in one case the New Negro Movement gained traction as short stories, novels, and poems by black authors began taking form and getting into various print publications in the 1910s and 1920s.^[55] Although a seemingly practiced mode to establish their identities and culture, many authors note how hard information technology was for any of their work to really get anywhere. Writer Charles Chesnutt in 1877, for case, notes that in that location was no indication of his race alongside his publication in Atlantic Monthly (at the publisher's request).^[56]

A prominent factor in the New Negro'south struggle was that their work had been made out to be "different" or "exotic" to white audiences, making a necessity for black writers to entreatment to them and compete with each other to get their work out.^[55] Famous blackness author and poet Langston Hughes explained that black-authored works were placed in a like fashion to those of oriental or foreign origin, only being used occasionally in comparison to their white-made counterparts: one time a spot for a blackness work was "taken", black authors had to look elsewhere to publish.^[56]

Certain aspects of the Harlem Renaissance were accustomed without fence, and without scrutiny. One of these was the futurity of the "New Negro". Artists and intellectuals of the Harlem Renaissance echoed American progressivism in its faith in democratic reform, in its conventionalities in art and literature as agents of change, and in its almost uncritical belief in itself and its future. This progressivist worldview rendered Black intellectuals—but similar their White counterparts—unprepared for the rude shock of the Great Depression, and the Harlem Renaissance ended abruptly because of naive assumptions near the centrality of culture, unrelated to economic and social realities.^[57]

Works associated with the Harlem Renaissance

• Blackbirds of 1928
• Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance (volume)
• The New Negro: The Life of Alain Locke
• Shuffle Along, musical
• Untitled (The Birth), painting
• Voodoo (opera)
• When Washington Was in Vogue
• The Negro in Art
• Taboo (1922 play)
• There'll Be Some Changes Made

See likewise

• Black Arts Motion, 1960s and 1970s
• Black Renaissance in D.C.
• Chicago Blackness Renaissance
• List of female entertainers of the Harlem Renaissance
• List of notable figures from the Harlem Renaissance
• New Negro
• Niggerati
• William Eastward. Harmon Foundation laurels
• Cotton Club, nightclub

General:

• Roaring Twenties
• African-American fine art
• African-American civilisation
• African-American literature
• Listing of African-American visual artists

Notes and references

Notes

1. ^ "NAACP: A Century in the Fight for Liberty" Archived 1 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Library of Congress.
2. ^ "Harlem in the Jazz Age", New York Times, 8 February 1987.
3. ^ Cotter, Holland, "ART; A 1920s Flowering That Didn't Disappear", New York Times, 24 May 1998.
4. ^ Danica Kirka, Jcu.edu Archived 10 June 2011 at the Wayback Motorcar
5. ^ Kirka, Danica (ane January 1995). "Los Angeles Times Interview : Dorothy West : A Voice of Harlem Renaissance Talks of Past--Just Values the At present". Los Angeles Times.
6. ^ Hutchinson, George, "Harlem Renaissance", Encyclopædia Britannica.
7. ^ ^{a b} "Project MUSE – Modernism, Mass Culture, and the Harlem Renaissance: The Case of Countee Cullen." Projection MUSE – Modernism, Mass Culture, and the Harlem Renaissance: The Case of Countee Cullen. N.p., n.d. Spider web. four Apr 2015.
8. ^ "Speeches of African-American Representatives Addressing the Ku Klux Klan Bill of 1871" (PDF). NYU Constabulary.
9. ^ Cooper Davis, Peggy. "Neglected Voices". NYU Law.
10. ^ Woods, Clyde (1998). Development Arrested . New York and London: Verso. ISBN9781859848111.
11. ^ Blackmon, Douglas A. (2009). Slavery By Some other Proper noun: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Ceremonious War to World State of war II. Ballast.
12. ^ Foner, Eric (1988). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. Harper Collins.
13. ^ Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem; Obstfeld, Raymond (2007). On The Shoulders of Giants : My Journey Through the Harlem Renaissance. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. ane–288. ASIN B000NY130O. ISBN978-ane-4165-3488-iv. OCLC 76168045.
14. ^ Dizzying (5 December 2016). "The Harlem Renaissance". Boundless.
15. ^ Muhammad, Khalil Gibran (2010). The Condemnation of Black: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modernistic Urban America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 1–14. ISBN978-0-674-03597-three.
16. ^ "Harlem Hellfighters: Black Soldiers in World State of war I". America Comes Alive. 5 February 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
17. ^ McKay, Nellie Y., and Henry Louis Gates (eds), The Norton Album of African American Literature, New York: Norton, 1997, p. 931.
18. ^ McKay, Claude. "Invocation" and "Harlem Dancer," in The Seven Arts 2.6 (October 1917): 741–742. Original page scan available in public domain through The Modernist Journals Projection.
19. ^ Poets, Academy of American Poets. "About Fenton Johnson". poets.org . Retrieved xiv August 2021.
20. ^ Foundation, Poetry (thirteen August 2021). "Fenton Johnson". Verse Foundation . Retrieved fourteen Baronial 2021.
21. ^ Lewis, David Levering (1995). The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader. Penguin Books. p. 752. ISBN978-0-14-017036-8.
22. ^ Langston, Hughes (1926). "The Negro Creative person and the Racial Mountain". The Nation.
23. ^ Locke, Alain (1925). The New Negro. Touchstone. pp. ix.
24. ^ Locke, Alain (1925). The New Negro. Touchstone.
25. ^ Hughes, Langston (1926). The Weary Blues. New York: Random Firm.
26. ^ Hughes, Langston (1994). The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes . Vintage Classics. pp. 307. ISBN978-0679764083.
27. ^ Williams, Robert K.; Carrington, Charles (May 1936). "Methodist Wedlock and The Negro". The Crisis. 43 (5): 134–135.
28. ^ ^{a b} MacWilliam, George Joseph (January 1920). "The Cosmic Church and the Negro Priest". The Crisis. 19 (3): 122–123. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
29. ^ Rampersad, Arnold (Introduction) (1997). Alain Locke (ed.). The New Negro: Voices of the Harlem Renaissance (1st Touchstone ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. ISBN978-0684838311.
30. ^ Cullen, Countee. "Heritage". Poesy Foundation. Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
31. ^ Hughes, Langston (13 January 2010). "Merry Christmas". H-Net: Humanities & Social Sciences Online. New Masses. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
32. ^ America, Harlem Renaissance in (5 December 2016). "The Harlem Renaissance". Harlem Renaissance in America Art History – via coreybarksdale.com.
33. ^ Boland, Jesse. "Harlem Renaissance Music." 1920s Way and Music. Spider web. 23 November 2009.
34. ^ "Harlem Renaissance Music in the 1920s", 1920s Way & Music.
35. ^ Leonard Feather, "The Book of Jazz" (1957/59), p. 59 ff., Western Book Dist, 1988, ISBN 0818012021, 9780818012020
36. ^ Southern, Eileen, Music of Negro Americans: a history. New York: Norton, 1997. Print, pp. 404, 405 and 409.
37. ^ Hatch, James Vernon; Hamalian, Leo (1996). Lost plays of the Harlem Renaissance, 1920-1940. Internet Archive. Detroit : Wayne Country Academy Printing. ISBN978-0-8143-2580-3.
38. ^ West, Aberjhani and Sandra Fifty. (2003). Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance, pp. 105–106; Vogue, 15 Feb 1926, p. 76.
39. ^ Etherington-Smith, Meredith (1983), Patou, p. 83; Vogue, i June 1927, p. 51.
40. ^ White, Shane and Graham (1998). Stylin': African American Expressive Culture from Its Ancestry to the Zoot Adapt, pp. 248–251.
41. ^ "Eva Jessye", University of Michigan, accessed iv December 2008.
42. ^ Nugent, Bruce (2002). Wirth, Thomas H.; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (eds.). Gay rebel of the Harlem renaissance : selections from the work of Richard Bruce Nugent . Durham [North.C.]: Duke University Press. ISBN978-0822328865. OCLC 48691374.
43. ^ W.East.B. Du Bois, "The Talented Tenth" (text), Sep 1903, TeachingAmericanHistory.org, Ashland Academy, accessed 3 Sep 2008
44. ^ Information technology was possible for blacks to have intellectual discussions on whether black people had a future in America, and the Harlem Renaissance reflected such sociopolitical concerns.
45. ^ ^{a b c} Hix, Lisa (ix July 2013). "Singing the Lesbian Blues in 1920s Harlem". Collectors Weekly.
46. ^ ^{a b} Tenoria, Samantha (2006). "Women-Loving Women: Queering Blackness Urban Space during the Harlem Renaissance" (PDF). The Academy of California, Irvine (UCI) Undergraduate Research Journal.
47. ^ ^{a b} Villarosa, Linda (23 July 2011). "The Gay Harlem Renaissance". The Root. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016.
48. ^ Garber, Eric. "A Spectacle in Color: The Lesbian and Gay Subculture of Jazz Age Harlem". American Studies at the University of Virginia. University of Virginia.
49. ^ ^{a b} Rabaka, Reiland (2011). Hip Hop'southward Inheritance From the Harlem Renaissance to the Hip Hop Feminist Move. Lexington Books. ISBN9780739164822.
50. ^ Yayla, Ayşegül. "Harlem Renaissance and its Discontents". Academia. Academia. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
51. ^ ^{a b} Aptheker, H. ed. (1997), The Correspondence of Spider web Dubois: Selections, 1877–1934, Vol. 1, pp. 374–375.
52. ^ Rampersad, Arnold (26 November 2001). The Life of Langston Hughes: Book I: 1902-1941, I, Likewise, Sing America. Oxford University Press. ISBN9780199760862 – via Google Books.
53. ^ "Project MUSE – Multiple Passings and the Double Decease of Langston Hughes." Project MUSE – Multiple Passings and the Double Expiry of Langston Hughes. N.p., northward.d. Web. four April 2015.
54. ^ Davis, John S. (2012). Historical dictionary of jazz. Scarecrow Press. ISBN9780810878983. OCLC 812621902.
55. ^ ^{a b} Werner, Craig; Golphin, Vincent F. A.; Reisman, Rosemary 1000. Canfield (2017), "African American Poesy", Salem Press Encyclopedia of Literature, Salem Press, retrieved 21 May 2019
56. ^ ^{a b} Holmes, Eugene C. (1968). "Alain Locke and the New Negro Motility". Negro American Literature Forum. ii (3): 60–68. doi:ten.2307/3041375. ISSN 0028-2480. JSTOR 3041375.
57. ^ Pawłowska, Aneta (2014). "The Ambivalence of African-American Culture. The New Negro Art in the interwar menses". Art Inquiry. 16: 190 – via Google Scholar.

References

• Amos, Shawn, compiler. Rhapsodies in Black: Words and Music of the Harlem Renaissance. Los Angeles: Rhino Records, 2000. iv Compact Discs.
• Andrews, William L.; Frances S. Foster; Trudier Harris, eds. The Curtailed Oxford Companion To African American Literature. New York: Oxford Press, 2001. ISBN 1-4028-9296-9
• Bean, Annemarie. A Sourcebook on African-American Performance: Plays, People, Movements. London: Routledge, 1999; pp. seven + 360.
• Greaves, William documentary From These Roots.
• Hicklin, Fannie Ella Frazier. 'The American Negro Playwright, 1920–1964.' PhD Dissertation, Department of Speech, University of Wisconsin, 1965. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms 65-6217.
• Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-nineteen-501665-3
• Hughes, Langston. The Big Sea. New York: Knopf, 1940.
• Hutchinson, George. The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White. New York: Belknap Printing, 1997. ISBN 0-674-37263-8
• Lewis, David Levering, ed. The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader. New York: Viking Penguin, 1995. ISBN 0-14-017036-7
• Lewis, David Levering. When Harlem Was in Faddy. New York: Penguin, 1997. ISBN 0-14-026334-ix
• Ostrom, Hans. A Langston Hughes Encyclopedia. Westport: Greenwood Printing, 2002.
• Ostrom, Hans and J. David Macey, eds. The Greenwood Encylclopedia of African American Literature. 5 volumes. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2005.
• Patton, Venetria K. and Maureen Honey, eds. Double-Take: A Revisionist Harlem Renaissance Anthology. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2006.
• Perry, Jeffrey B. A Hubert Harrison Reader. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Printing, 2001.
• Perry, Jeffrey B. Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 1883–1918. New York: Columbia Academy Printing, 2008.
• Powell, Richard, and David A. Bailey, eds. Rhapsodies in Black: Art of the Harlem Renaissance. Berkeley: Academy of California Press, 1997.
• Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes. two volumes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 and 1988.
• Robertson, Stephen, et al., "Disorderly Houses: Residences, Privacy, and the Surveillance of Sexuality in 1920s Harlem," Journal of the History of Sexuality, 21 (September 2012), 443–66.
• Soto, Michael, ed. Teaching The Harlem Renaissance. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.
• Tracy, Steven C. Langston Hughes and the Dejection. Urbana: University of Illinois Printing, 1988.
• Watson, Steven. The Harlem Renaissance: Hub of African-American Civilization, 1920–1930. New York: Pantheon Books, 1995. ISBN 0-679-75889-five
• Williams, Iain Cameron. "Underneath a Harlem Moon ... The Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall". Continuum Int. Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0826458939
• Wintz, Cary D. Black Civilisation and the Harlem Renaissance. Houston: Rice University Printing, 1988.
• Wintz, Cary D. Harlem Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance. Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2007

Further reading

• Brown, Linda Rae. "William Grant Yet, Florence Price, and William Dawson: Echoes of the Harlem Renaissance." In Samuel A. Floyd, Jr (ed.), Black Music in the Harlem Renaissance, Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990, pp. 71–86.
• Buck, Christopher (2013). Harlem Renaissance in: The American Mosaic: The African American Experience. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara, California.
• Johnson, Michael G. (2019) Can't Stand Still: Taylor Gordon and the Harlem Renaissance, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, ISBN 9781496821966 (online)
• King, Shannon (2015). Whose Harlem Is This, Anyway? Community Politics and Grassroots Activism during the New Negro Era. New York: New York Academy Press.
• Lassieur, Alison. (2013), The Harlem Renaissance: An Interactive History Adventure, Capstone Press, ISBN 9781476536095
• Padva, Gilad (2014). "Black Nostalgia: Verse, Ethnicity, and Homoeroticism in Looking for Langston and Brother to Blood brother". In Padva, Gilad, Queer Nostalgia in Movie theatre and Popular Civilization, pp. 199–226. Basingstock, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

External links

• "A Guide to Harlem Renaissance Materials", from the Library of Congress
• Bryan Carter (ed.). "Virtual Harlem". University of Illinois at Chicago, Electronic Visualization Laboratory.
• "The Approaching 100th Ceremony of the Harlem Renaissance", by Hr historian Aberjhani
• Underneath A Harlem Moon past Iain Cameron Williams ISBN 0-8264-5893-9
• I'd Like to Bear witness You Harlem – past Rollin Lynde Hartt, The Independent, April, 1921
• Collection: "Artists of the Harlem Renaissance" from the University of Michigan Museum of Fine art

gaylordthavier.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance#:~:text=The%20Harlem%20Renaissance%20was%20an,spanning%20the%201920s%20and%201930s.

Share this post